How are aircraft CG limits established?

CG limits are established by analyzing stability, control, and performance at extreme positions. Forward limit determined by: Adequate elevator power for takeoff rotation, Landing flare control power, Acceptable stick forces in maneuvering, and Ground handling (nose wheel loads). Aft limit determined by: Minimum static margin (longitudinal stability), Short period damping requirements, Stall recovery capability, and Spin resistance. Analysis uses flight simulation, piloted evaluation, and flight testing to verify controllability. Certification requires demonstration at extremes. Operational CG limits include margins from certificated limits for loading uncertainty. CG affects both handling and performance significantly.