Analyze the steady-state operation of a buck converter.

In a buck converter, when switch is ON: Vin applies across inductor, current ramps up at di/dt = (Vin-Vo)/L. When OFF: diode freewheels, inductor current ramps down at di/dt = -Vo/L. Steady-state volt-second balance: (Vin-Vo)*D = Vo*(1-D), giving Vo = D*Vin. Current ripple: delta_I = Vo*(1-D)/(L*fsw). Output voltage ripple: delta_Vo = delta_I/(8*fsw*C). Continuous conduction mode (CCM) requires minimum load current > delta_I/2. Efficiency affected by switch conduction/switching losses, inductor DCR, and diode losses.