What are the options for carbon capture in refineries and petrochemical plants?

Carbon capture options: Post-combustion - amine absorption of CO2 from flue gas, applicable to heaters/boilers/FCC regenerator. Energy penalty 15-30% for regeneration. Pre-combustion - capture CO2 from syngas before combustion, applicable to hydrogen plants. Shift reaction converts CO to CO2 for easier capture. Oxyfuel - combust in pure oxygen, producing concentrated CO2 stream. High capital for air separation unit. Point source capture - prioritize high-concentration streams (hydrogen plant, ammonia plant) for lowest cost. CO2 utilization - enhanced oil recovery, chemicals production (urea, methanol, carbonates). Storage - geological sequestration in depleted reservoirs or saline aquifers. Economics - capture cost $40-100/ton CO2 depending on source concentration. Regulatory drivers - carbon pricing, emission limits. Many refiners focusing on hydrogen production decarbonization (blue hydrogen) as first step.