How are ground movements from tunneling predicted and controlled?

Tunneling-induced settlements depend on volume loss (1-3% for EPB/TBM, up to 5% for NATM in soft ground). Settlement trough: Smax at centerline, Gaussian distribution with trough width parameter i depending on depth and soil. Maximum slope and curvature determine building damage potential. Prediction methods: empirical (Peck, Mair), analytical (elastic), or FEM. Control measures: face pressure optimization, tail void grouting, compensation grouting, and protective measures (underpinning, isolation trenches). Monitoring includes extensometers, inclinometers, and surface leveling.